It was in the fourth millennium BC, that the priests of the great agricultural cities of the Indus Valley, Sumer and Egypt first recognised in the heavens, a harmonic (and from their point of view a divinely inspired) procession of the planets and stars, and their effect on nature (where “nature” includes ourselves, our environment and the cultural milieu in which we live). Since then we have felt compelled physically, mentally and spiritually to investigate their meaning in all aspects.
“We must understand our world in such a way that it would not be absurd to claim that this world itself produced us.” Ilya Prigogine – Nobel Laureate
An understanding of space/time and matter/energy has been a major concern of scientific inquiry for many centuries, creating powerful ideas, and making methods of understanding and changing the world available.
The famous Polish astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), forever changed our view of the world and its place in the cosmos by arguing that the Earth is not, in fact, the centre of the universe. Today, science continues to question the structure and nature of the universe, and is still producing extraordinary and surprising results.
Behind it all is surely an idea so simple, so beautiful, that when we grasp it - in a decade, a century, or a millennium - we will all say to each other, how could it have been otherwise? How could we have been so stupid for so long? - John Archibald Wheeler
Recent quotes from some leading western scientists regarding the nature of the universe suggest, if not a spiritual dimension, at least a seriously aesthetic one.
"There's no question that there are many things about the universe which if they were very much different, even just a little bit different, life couldn't exist, intelligent life couldn't exist," said Stanford physics Professor Leonard Susskind, "The [universe] is truly an incredibly fine-tuned place."
“Given the evolutionary ascension of multi cellular organisms each producing negative entropic states and having specialized cells with excitable membranes, the progress to consciousness and intelligence was inevitable…..Consciousness is shaped by and requires the environment with which the brain interacts. A conscious being is made of energy, quarks, gluons, electrons, atoms, molecules, etc. that originate from and are part of the universe. For example, the elements of humans other than hydrogen originate in stars. Therefore, in broader terms, the physics of the universe dynamically gives rise to a conscious being, and it is implicit that the universe is aware of itself.” Dr Richard Mills: From his book, Classical Quantum Mechanics
Some vital postulates which form the foundations of modern physics are based on the largely false propositions that;
1. Space is absolutely empty and there is no material carrier of light;
2. The speed of light c is always and everywhere the same, and is a "universal constant", here and in all other Universes, now and forever.
3. Wave/Particle duality.
4. According to its speed of motion and rate of acceleration, time can literally speed up or slow down for a moving body,
5. A moving bodies mass increases to almost infinity as it approaches light speed.
6. Different kinds of energy are equivalent to one another, commonly known as the “First Law of Thermodynamics” or the Conservation Law.
The postulates were never proven by direct experiment. Their "proof' rests on satisfactory results provided by relativistic calculations. On them, and by the extermination of alternatives, three generations of physicists were educated in belief that relativity is the whole and only truth.
Let us examine these postulates in turn and see what alternative ideas are available;
1. Space is absolutely empty and there is no material carrier of light
Sound travels in air, why should light, which is merely another form of energy wave, travel in nothing. Today, physics accepts that space isn’t empty, but can’t really make up its mind what it’s filled with.
James Clerk Maxwell (1812 – 1875?) was the first to unify the forces of electricity and magnetism. He used a form of mathematics known as Quaternion in order to establish his theories. Few people at the time understood his mathematics and some influential physicists showed serious opposition to his ideas. In fact, after his death, his work was altered on the grounds of simplification by Heaviside and others, and certain important concepts were dropped and changed.
In part I of his 1861 paper ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, Maxwell, in an attempt to explain the phenomena of magnetic attraction and repulsion, conceived the idea of a sea of molecular vortices, mutually aligned in their axial planes and all rotating in the same direction, such that a centrifugal pressure exists in the equatorial plane. A magnetic line of force is therefore a single column of vortices aligned along their axes of rotation.
He seeks to justify his proposal by introducing hydro-dynamical equations in which the square of the circumferential velocity of the vortices determines the pressure differential between the equatorial and the axial planes in the vortex sea (read ether) and the transverse waves in the vortex sea propagate at the speed of light. He seems to treat ether density in the same manner as electric charge is treated in modern science.
He later concludes “It appears from all these instances that the connexion between
magnetism and electricity has the same mathematical form as that between certain pairs of phenomena, of which one has a linear and the other a rotatory character.”
Maxwell goes on to point out that “The magnetic state, however is characterized by a well-marked rotatory phenomenon discovered by Faraday - the rotation of the plane of polarized light when transmitted along the lines of magnetic force”. Maxwell concludes that this rotation is being caused by the rotation of the vortices themselves.
In part III of his 1861 paper, Maxwell uses Newton’s equation for the speed of sound to show that electromagnetic waves are transverse disturbances in an elastic solid. Maxwell uses the concept of electric displacement and then establishes the ratio of transverse elasticity to density and substitutes the result into Newton’s speed of sound equation.
This method is never dealt with in modern textbooks as it has been totally swept
under the carpet despite the fact that it was the jewel in the crown of Maxwell’s career.
The 1887 ether-drift experiment of Albert Michelson and Edward Morley (known as the Michelson-Morley experiment) established the idea of “empty space” which demanded constancy in light speed. This led to the rejection by mainstream physics of the concept of space filled with a mass-free cosmic medium (known as “the ether”) through which light waves propagated. The ether allowed for variations in light speed, showing that light is not constant in all directions, but shows a measurable direction-dependent variance (anisotropy).
Dayton Miller is one of the 20th century’s least known yet prolific and brilliant physicists. His1933 paper in Reviews of Modern Physics details the positive results from over 20 years of experimental research into the question of ether-drift, and remains the most definitive body of work on the subject of light-beam interferometry. His experimental work was comprehensive and accurate, and when challenged he always responded in an intelligent, considered and practical manner.
"The effect [of ether-drift] has persisted throughout. After considering all the possible sources of error, there always remained a positive effect." — Dayton Miller (1928, p.399)
However, the establishment led by Miller’s ex student Shankland and his team, and supported by Einstein, whose General Theory of Relativity depended on a constant speed of light, refused to accept Miller’s results, or give them the attention they deserved.
Einstein stated regarding Miller,
"I believe that I have really found the relationship between gravitation and electricity, assuming that the Miller experiments are based on a fundamental error. Otherwise, the whole relativity theory collapses like a house of cards." Albert Einstein, in a letter to Robert Millikan, June 1921 (in Clark 1971, p.328)
"My opinion about Miller's experiments is the following. ... Should the positive result be confirmed, then the special theory of relativity, and with it the general theory of relativity, in its current form, would be invalid. Experimentum summus judex. Only the equivalence of inertia and gravitation would remain, however, they would have to lead to a significantly different theory." Albert Einstein, in a letter to Edwin E. Slosson, July 1925
The Shankland group’s critique was poorly conceived and executed and they produced no experimental evidence of their own relating to any issues which they raised.
Frederick Tombe proposes an improvement to Maxwell’s model that involves replacing his molecular vortices with rotating electron-positron dipoles. These dipoles will each comprise of an electron and a positron undergoing a mutual orbit. Electromagnetism is then explained in terms of an electric sea in which magnetic lines of force are physically comprised of helical springs created out of rotating electron-positron dipoles. The electron-positron dipoles are bonded together in a double helix pattern (see fig.1.) and the resulting helical springs form elliptical or circular solenoidal hoops around an electric current circuit or a bar magnet (see fig.2.).
Fig.1 The Double Helix Model of The Fundamental Structure of Matter
Fig.2. A solenoid (1827, fr. solénoïde, gr. solen "pipe, channel" + comb. form of gr. eidos "form, shape") is a three-dimensional coil. In physics, the term solenoid refers to a loop of wire, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a magnetic field when an electric current is passed through it.
Tome continues “It is clear that the luminiferous medium must be a sea of particles on a scale that is many orders of magnitude smaller than atomic and molecular matter. The obvious choice for what these particles ought to be is electrons and positrons as these are the only stable pairs of particles on that scale which are known to exist. Maxwell said in part II of his 1861 paper, “It appears therefore that, according to our hypothesis, an electric current is represented by the transference of the moveable particles interposed between the neighbouring vortices - - -“.
Tombe says, “We need to reconcile simple harmonic motion with the fundamental forces that act between electrons and positrons. If we put a static electron and a static positron side by side, they will attract each other, but there will be absolutely no question whatsoever of simple harmonic motion occurring. We need to find a dynamic situation involving electrons and positrons, from which we can obtain a simple harmonic motion out of the fundamental forces.
Frederick David Tombe, 15th February 2006, Philippine Islands
(18th December 2008 Amendment, Cebu City) Abstract. Maxwell’s 1861 paper ‘On Physical Lines of Force’
Maxwell may already have provided the key to this problem by emphasizing the fact that he was considering tangential motion as opposed to radial motion, when considering the displacement of his electrical particles. Tangential motion suggests that the centrifugal force is involved. A rotating electron-positron dipole in which the collapsing effect of the Coulomb force is cancelled out by the repulsive effect of the centrifugal force, could be considered as being representative of the elastic sphere, and hence the molecular vortex
cell. Maxwell’s Displacement current is a one dimensional phenomenon. If we resolve
the motion of the electron and the positron within a single rotating dipole along one axis in the equatorial plane, we will have an alternating electric current satisfying the conditions of simple harmonic motion. This reconciles the mathematical link between electric current and simple harmonic motion at microscopic level.”
The “Ether” as cold neutral ionized plasma
An article in Science by Itano et al begins by saying: "Plasmas, the ionized states of matter, are usually hot and gaseous. However, a sufficiently cold or dense plasma can be liquid or solid. A one-component plasma (OCP) consists of a single charged species embedded in a uniform, neutralizing background charge. “
SCIENCE Journal, Itano et al at p. 686 of Vol. 279, 30 January 1998.
More recently Dr. Menahem Simhony has proved beyond any doubt that a physical
medium of electrons and positrons pervades what we customarily accept to be the
vacuum, and his theory comes from within the discipline of solid state physics, and is totally independent of the discipline of electromagnetism.
Dr. Simhony proposes that the 'vacuum medium', otherwise known as the 'ether', can be postulated as a cold neutral ionized plasma that has such a perfect crystalline form (which he terms Epola) that it cannot be 'seen' or 'felt' as a medium resisting force. In fact it responds so easily in its reaction to invasion by matter that it dissolves its structure and reforms that structure in the wake of matter that does move through it.
2. Is Light a Universal Constant (c)
The truth is that the velocity of light, once emitted, depends only on the physical conditions in the region of space where it propagates. Light does not 'remember' its previous velocities or the velocity of its source, and the speed of light does not depend on them. Light always reaches us with the same speed c, not for being a "universal constant", but because the physical conditions in our space are the same everywhere around us, causing the velocity of light here to be equal to c. The ether is the only reference frame for light.
3. Particles, Waves, and their postulated duality
If atomic matter consists of waves and particles it seems sensible to assume a certain order of priority and structure. We currently accept a mysterious flipping between the two states according to observation or some mathematical theories which only a handful of mathematical physicists could even begin to understand.
In 1905, Albert Einstein revived Newton's corpuscular theory of light by postulating that light represents streams of energy quanta or photons. Photons were pronounced particles of the fictitious emptiness. They have mass only when they move with the velocity of light. It was found that though light is a wave process, its quanta or photons have momentum and may act as real particles. Unable and unwilling to find the physical reasons for this 'duality', new physics canonized it by the "particle-wave duality principle." It states, without explanation, that waves may have particle properties, and particles may exhibit wave properties. This is a "no answer, answer", typical for new physics.
One explanation posited by Simhoni is that, “space contains bound electrons and positrons. Some vibrations of these particles form waves that we perceive as light. The wave properties of light are the properties of these real waves. The particle properties of light are those of electrons and positrons vibrating in the wave. The particle properties can be detected when the real particles, vibrating in the wave, hit free particles or particles of a target (detector).
Atomic bodies are highly diluted networks of nuclei that are 50,000 nuclei radii apart from one another. Therefore the moving atomic body as a whole cannot "bulldozer" the electron positron lattice, cannot push or pull it, nor can the body make wind, or currents in it Motion of atomic bodies causes only vibrations and waves in an electron positron lattice”
The Ether is continuous but not homogeneous. The cause of the difference of state, as well as of local configurations and elements, is Motion and Pressure, called Energy. Matter is the vehicle for energy, it is continuous and discontinuous, and has the capacity to be conscious. Energy is motion and pressure taking place through matter.
4. Does time change speed in absolute terms
In our natural system of orientation, time is a coordinate, in which to order events as they occur. It is the independent coordinate, flowing at its constant rate. Time will run at the same rate for travelers at the highest speed of 100 km/s, achievable by atomic bodies in the Solar System, as for those who watch the voyage on TV at home.
Rate changes and time changes are not the same. Rate changes become measurable only through comparison against constant measuring units. The relativity of time is not of time at all, it is of light – curved space is curved light through a medium of variable density. The space –time continuum does not exist, it is the ether-light continuum. The ether possesses varied densities with the solid, liquid or gaseous matter that displaces it. The speed of light is a function of the minimal density of the conducting medium.
“Time-thinking is thinking involved in this womb-world; such thought does not touch the problem of eternity. In this view, eternity is not a long time; rather, it is another dimension. It is that dimension to which time-thinking shuts us. And so there never was a creation. Rather, there is a continuous creating going on. This energy is pouring into every cell of our being right now, every board and brick of the buildings we sit in, every grain of sand and wisp of wind. It is aum, the sound of the universe, that sound that is not made by two things rubbing together.” Joseph Campbell, Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal
5. Dependence of apparent mass on velocity
We know that the dimensions of a body change only when there is an internal or external action on it. If the length, or width, or height of a body shortens due to motion, then this could occur only because of a physical or chemical interaction between the body and the medium in which it moves. We thus keep our orientation system as it was established, i.e., with independent time, and three space coordinates or dimensions of bodies.
6. Classical Physics and received wisdom
In a 1905 paper Einstein derived his formula for the alleged dependence of the mass of an electron on the velocity of its motion in an electromagnetic field. For an electron moving with a velocity of 2000 km/s (velocity of outer orbital electrons) the formula yields an increase of mass by as little as 0.0003%. At 200,000 km/s the mass of the electron would increase by 40%, and would become infinite at the speed of light.
The truth is that the real mass of a body is the quantity of matter in the body; it cannot and does not increase with velocity. But at a certain speed of a nuclear particle, the inertial resistance to its acceleration in space starts to increase, which appears as an increase in mass. This resistance drastically increases at particle speeds close to the speed of light c.
Einstein generalized his results to “ponderable material points”, i.e., to small bodies of atomic matter. He “proved” it by saying “because a ponderable material point can be made into an electron”. Well, it cannot. No piece of atomic matter can be made into an electron! However, the fallacy has never been corrected and is still included in modern textbooks.
The “First Law of Thermodynamics” or “The Conservation Law”
Different kinds of energy are not equivalent to one another; some kinds are "more equal". Thus, only a small part of thermal energy can be converted into mechanical energy. The energy of electric currents is most versatile, but only a small part of it can be converted into radiation energy, the "most equal" kind. By saying that the kind of energy evidently makes no difference, Einstein played on the misunderstanding of energy conservation. This law states that if and when one kind of energy is converted into another kind, then the converted amounts of energy are equal. Different kinds of energy are not equal, not replaceable.
The Improper Interpretation of E=mc2
Einstein derived this formula in 1905 from a calculation of the radiation energy of an electron moving in the electromagnetic field. Unfortunately, he generalized it to "ponderable masses as well ", i.e., to atomic bodies, without any proof. He also equated the radiation energy with any other energy, by saying: "The fact that the energy withdrawn from the body becomes energy of radiation evidently makes no difference, so that: The mass of a body is a measure of its energy content; if the energy changes by E, the mass changes in the same sense by E/c2 "
Moreover, equations contain amounts only, and can thus equate amounts only. They cannot equate kinds of a physical magnitude nor physical magnitudes as such, simply because equations do not contain them. Hence, an equation cannot replace mass by energy, nor any physical magnitude by another one. Presentation of E=mc2 as a mass-energy equivalence is thus improper. As improper as would be such a presentation of the E=mv2/2 equation for the kinetic energy of a body.
The truth is that in the E=mc2 equation, m is the change in the amount of mass of electrons and other nuclear particles, present, appearing, and disappearing in space. This amount is equal to the amount of absorbed or emitted radiation energy E, divided by the squared velocity of light. The equality of these amounts, m=E/c2, does not mean that mass and energy are equivalent or replaceable. Similarly, if you buy a loaf of bread for a dollar bill, then these two items are not equivalent or replaceable, because you cannot make bread out of the bill, or a dollar bill out of the bread. Make, not buy, sell, or exchange! Further, the “simultaneity” of two events doesn’t have anything to do with when they occur, it depends only when they are observed. This makes simultaneity purely subjective; it has nothing to do with nature!
Time and space are rational dimensions, mental constructs with which we measure certain relations between things. Matter is ubiquitous and in a state of flux, and there is no one fixed point or unmoving centre of relational systems. There is a duality to relation;
1. Real relation, being identity, the spatio-temporal relation between objects absolutely. All are part of the overriding unity that is the physical world! Which is infinite. We recognize that the objective relation, while absolute, allows variability of quantity, length, rate and mass of all things that enter into such relation with one another.
2. Rational relation of measuring systems which are arbitrary, logico-mathematical dimensions such as quantity, extension and duration. Whether measuring units are constant or variable is irrelevant, they are rational and arbitrary.
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