As Joseph Campbell said with particular reference to the Roman Catholic Church which states, "extra ecclesiam nulla salus" – There is no salvation outside the church.
When you hold the only prescription for an imaginary disease, then you hold the faithful to ransom, with no alternative route to truth and freedom. From a spiritual standpoint, robbed of our strength of will and capacity to live an authentic life, we accept our fate, and pay homage to gods controlled by institutional clergy, and whom we guess are forever out of reach.
Marx had written his most famous statement, in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, published in 1844:
"Religion is the sob of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people."(1970 edition, p.131)
Russell says in relation to theology, "Theology, on the other hand, induces a dogmatic belief that we have knowledge where in fact we have ignorance, and by doing so generates a kind of impertinent insolence towards the universe."
Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy Introduction p 14.
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)defined religion as 'a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden - beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them' (Sharpe, 1975, p.84).
Durkheim put it like this in his The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1913): 'In a general way a society has all that is necessary to arouse the sensation of the divine in minds, merely by the power that it has over them; for to its members it is what a god is to his worshippers.'
Durkheim further explains “We must be transparent to transcendence. That you live the divine life within you, yourself as a vehicle of consciousness and life.”
"But myths, if they are really going to be myths, must separate in time the things of which they tell, and set apart from each other many realities which are together, but distinct in rank of powers, at points where rational discussions, also, make generations of things ungenerated, and themselves, too, separate things which are together; the myths, when they have taught us as well as they can, allow the man who has understood them to put together again that which they have separated." At higher and more complex levels of meaning and understanding" (italics are mine)
Plotinus, Ennead III.5.24
Early mans life was short, the environmental conditions which surrounded him varied in severity, depending on the nature of the particular niche in which he lived. Survival which included providing food, shelter and security for himself, his family and group was his immediate concern, and took up most of his time. He communicated through simple language and gestures, and his harnessing of fire allowed him to cook his food, and to provide warmth and protection against predators.(It is understood that the first evidence of the use of fire by early man was in the Choukoutien Cave, some thirty-seven miles from Peiping in China, falling somewhere in the Middle Pleistocene-about 500,000-200,000 BC )
Research by Webb and Domansky now shows that early modern humans were experimenting with the use of fire for improved processing of materials. Replication experiments and analysis of artifacts suggest that humans in
The latest research suggests that cooked food is significantly easier to eat and digest. This allowed the jaw to shrink and the brain cavity to expand. Leading on from this, his developing brain allowed him to use his time more efficiently, to hone his survival and socialization skills, and to produce artifacts, tools and weapons to augment and extend his physical capabilities.
When events occurred which upset the status quo, and which were beyond his understanding and the direct control of the individual or group, something deep within the maturing human psyche demanded that action be taken to redress the balance between constructive and destructive forces, and restore equilibrium. It therefore seems to me, that it makes far more sense to view myth from a symbolic perspective, with the essential purpose of providing for a psychological need, rather than as actual historical events, for which there is still little or no hard evidence.
These psychic expressions (rituals) and activities, (rites) when enacted on appropriate occasions, (ceremonies) were believed to ward off negative (evil) events, or promote positive (good) events. These rituals and rites were seen as vital to the groups survival and well being, and they utilized all their powers and resources in order to favourably influence events.
The notion of emotionally driven aesthetic expression, probably arose quite early on in the process of mans development. It was used for entertainment, learning and building social cohesion, and played an important part in the rites, rituals and ceremonies. Thus music, chanting, dance and art were incorporated into the rites, in order to enhance their effects.
Although the method of expression of rites would vary with the culture of a group, its particular environment and life style, there appears to have been strong common themes and shared attitudes, which were later reflected in the oral traditions of myths and legends which still remain influential to this day.
My understanding therefore, is that the rites and rituals came first in mans psychic and spiritual development, and were later given verbal expression in the myths. Before he looked towards the heavens in awe and wonder, man was concerned with the mysteries below in his immediate environment and society. He later projected these notions into the heavens, his relationship with the gods, the creation of the universe, and heroic tales and adventures.
Joseph Campbell provides a cogent explanation of the purposes of Myth from a comprehensive range of viewpoints. He explains that Myths are true in a cultural context, not empirical but symbolic of psycho-spiritual states. Their purpose is to put an individual in accord with Nature. Campbell claims that there are four essential functions of any comprehensive mythic viewpoint which are mutually inclusive. They are;
1. Mystical
To reconcile consciousness with the foundations of Being (Existence). It is best exemplified by the feeling of awe which is experienced when a person is confronted with the tremendous and fascinating mystery of Existence, the realisation of life and death, what is known as the mysterium tremens et fascinans.
According to Campbell there are two basic attitudes to Existence:
a) There is a rejection of any metaphysical aspect to the mystery, and the view that ultimately everything will be explained by human reason, logic and science, this is known as the secular view.
b) The other attitude is one of acceptance, and is of a spiritual and religious nature. Here it is believed that Existence in part, or as a whole, is Divinely created or ordained. There are broadly two aspects to this attitude, termed by Adolph Bastian, the ethnic and elementary ideas, they are broadly as follows:
i) The ethnic viewpoint is where one is born into a particular faith, and is exemplified by Judaism and Hinduism, which also have a differing approach.
In the case of Judaism, one is born into a particular faith, and is “chosen by one god” (monotheism) as a believer in the “True” faith. Salvation is sought principally through association with a particular social group, and is achieved by adherence to a particular scripture, at some future messianic end time.
Hinduism, which is also an ethnic religion, is represented by belief in many gods. (polytheism) However, unlike Judaism, salvation is ultimately achieved by the individual soul or Atman's personal commitmant, actions and responsibility. The individual soul must travel through many cycles of death and rebirth, (samsara) until release (moksa)from the bondage (Karma) of life, and merger with the divine principle is achieved. It believes that the divine origin pervades us, (immanent) and its purpose is ultimately ineffable and beyond our understanding (transcendent).
ii) The other viewpoint is termed the elementary, and is exemplified by Christianity and Islam.
One becomes a Christian or a Muslim by professing these faiths and does not necessarily have to born into a particular social group. Both have allegiance to a divinely inspired scripture, the Old and New Testament in the case of Christianity, and the Koran in the case of Islam. In keeping with Judaism, but in contrast to Hinduism, “god” is seen as separate from his creation, standing outside and above so to speak (transcendent). Christianity, in contrast to Judaism sees salvation and redemption as available in this lifetime, through belief in a saviour,in the divine, but human form of “Jesus Christ,” who sacrificed himself on the cross in order to save mankind from sin.
Muslims believe in “Allah” as the divine principle, whose message (the Koran)is given to his followers through His messenger Mohamed.
Christ meant when he said in the Gospel of Thomas, “You enter the kingdom when you make the inner as the outer.”
2. Cosmological
A key issue is the potential conflict and confusion between archaic and modern science. Campbell claims that one of the major problems in our understanding of existence lies in the fact that when it comes to metaphysics, we are often applying an out of date cosmology to our understanding of the modern world. Views change over time.
Although we must never lose sight of the spiritual and aesthetic aspects of mankind it is also crucially important to recognise the rational and scientific dimension. We should consider the fact that the Shaman has now become the Scientist. Neither one has any absolute claim to the “Truth” but at best, both should be working towards the same goal, improving the human condition, and making the world a better and safer place for all living entities. These days this might sound too sentimental or idealistic, but the alternative is to have nowhere to go. It has been said that the organism that destroys its environment, ultimately destroys itself, period!
When the early Mesopotamian and Egyptian priests over 4 millennia ago, first looked up at the heavens and observed the regularities of motion and rhythms of the planets, stars and galaxies, they imagined a Divine hand at play, forming and controlling the Universe. They organised their societies and cultures on the same regular basis as they saw in this divinely inspired plan. Today, we have a whole range of scientific methods and technologies available to help us gain a better understanding of the universe. However, we are in serious danger of “throwing the baby out with the bath water,” and creating an earth which is a barren and soulless environment (Elliots’ Wasteland). A place in which knowledge is assessed for its level of contribution to material benefit and the human spirit is reduced to a shadow on the wall, without relevance to the reality we experience.
In terms of understanding mythic and religious belief and its relationship to science, Joseph Campbell, the great 20th Century Mythologist, has this to say:
“The myth has to deal with the cosmology of the day and its no good when it is based on a cosmology that’s out of date. And that’s one of our problems.I don’t see any conflict between Science and Religion. Religion has to accept the science of the day and penetrate it to the mystery. The conflict is between the science of 2000 BC and the science of 2000 AD. And that’s what we’ve got in the bible, which is based on a Sumerian mythology. As with any text that time and place have turned into history, these texts must necessarily be re-read and re-incorporated into the critical discourse of each succeeding generation.”
3. Sociological
Myth sustains a certain moral social order which maintains the cohesion of the group or tribe. The stories and oral traditions, related round the tribal campfires during the winter nights, long before the advent of writing, were reinforced through practical rituals, rites and ceremonies.
Emile Durkheim put it like this in his The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1913): 'In a general way a society has all that is necessary to arouse the sensation of the divine in minds, merely by the power that it has over them; for to its members it is what a god is to his worshippers.'
“Rites of Passage” developed to provide an individual with a socially developed and oriented plan which acted as a series of formulae or “cradle to the grave” instructions as to how to lead a spiritually successful life and to become a fully fledged and successful member of a particular community. Many of the early rituals would today be considered brutal, but it was often considered by many societies that an element of suffering was necessary in order to focus the mind, even if the individual occasionally died in the process!
With the advent of literacy, many of these stories were written down and preserved on parchments, and later in books. Many became incorporated into books which were, and are still considered by many to be divinely inspired (the word/laws of God). We now have the “laws of man” devised by the secular state which in the west encourages individual responsibility. These two laws often come into conflict. As we shall see later on, even the laws of man have potential areas of internal conflict.
4. Psychological
The aim of myth in the psychology of the individual is to create a balanced psyche. One which can maintain a balance between its own survival and ego identity, the requirements of the society to which it belongs, and the “Divine Nature” of the whole cosmos, which is the foundation and fabric of its existence.
In terms of man’s attitude to the divine Campbell talks about two basic forms:
Relationship with the Divine
This is primarily the traditional, orthodox western religious viewpoint, of the Judeo-Christian and Islamic belief systems. Here an individual is in a Relationship with the Divine, the power which created the world is not considered to be within it. An individual can only worship from a distance through the auspices of his group or religious institution which is seen as the Divine representative on earth.
The Catholic church by way of example states, “extra ecclesiam nulla salus” – There is no salvation outside the church.
"He who believes not will be condemned" Mark 16:16
The Catholic Church has solemnly defined three times by infallible declarations that outside the Catholic Church there is no salvation. The most explicit and forceful of the three came from Pope Eugene IV, in the Bull Cantate Domino, 1441, who proclaimed ex cathedra:
"The Most Holy Roman Church firmly believes, professes and preaches that none of those existing outside the Catholic Church, not only pagans, also Jews, heretics, and schismatics can ever be partakers of eternal life, but that they are to go into the eternal fire 'which was prepared for the devil and his angels' (Mt. 25:41) unless before death they are joined with Her... No one, let his almsgiving be as great as it may, no one, even if he pour out his blood for the Name of Christ can be saved unless they abide within the bosom and unity of the Catholic Church."
Identification with the Divine
This attitude to existence represents a mainly eastern viewpoint. It centres primarily on the individual as responsible for his own relationship with the Divine principle which in the end is the mystery which he himself is fundamentally a part. The mahaa-vaakyo states:
" tat tvam asi" = You (any creation) are That (creative power (brahman))
“The notion is that you yourself are identical with that form of forms, Brahman, but you identify yourself wrongly with the broken images that flicker on the surface. Just think: there are those wonderful forms there; here are these reflections always changing, and you identify yourself with the reflection instead of with the true, underlying form. As the wave ripples along, you think, oh, here I come; oh, there I go. Yet all the time you are the substantial thing that is being reflected here in broken image.”
Joseph Campbell, Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal
Summary
As far as I am concerned, the starting position for taking a Spiritual view and understanding of life, is to treat all religious and spiritual texts as myths, stories and legends, bearing symbolic reference to psycho-spiritual states, but with very little genuine historical authenticity.
There is no doubt that the myths were used historically, by the ruling elites of their times to gain political power and economic advantage, assisted by their propagandists. The only difference between then and now is a matter of degree. The modern level of sophistication with which deceit is expressed and propagated, means that more people can be affected, more deeply, more covertly and at a much quicker pace than in bygone days. The Roman days of bread and circus have become fast food and media circus. The cult of the heroes of ancient times has become the cult of celebrity.
Robert Graves, in the introduction to his book, The Greek Myths, reminds us that True myth must be distinguished from ... political propaganda as in Theseus's Federalization of Attica.
In my opinion we have developed an immature attitude of dependency towards life which is inappropriate for the modern age in which we live, and is leading us all into a state of intellectual and spiritual, “free fall” into an uncertain and disturbing future.
The developments of the modern world have placed us in a position of responsibility unprecedented in the annals of human history. We seem to be poised between enlightenment and oblivion, with the future direction hanging firmly in the balance.
The Kaatha Upanishad inspires us in chapter 3 Verse 14 to:
“Arise! Awake! Approach the great and learn. Like the sharp edge of a razor is that path, so the wise say - hard to tread and difficult to cross.”
The Nature of Pain and Suffering
According to primarily, western Judeo-Christian beliefs, pleasure (particularly of the flesh variety) is equated with sin, into which state man is naturally born, while pain and suffering are seen as an important part of his redemption. The seven sins are: pride, lust, greed, covetousness, gluttony, envy, and sloth.
According to Nietzsche these beliefs represent an image of morality which he sees as decadent in so far as it denies the importance of pain and suffering as an essential and natural part of our realisation of a complete and balanced psyche, which must recognise and accept what he terms the “Dionysian” aspect of its constitution.
“Affirmation of life even in its strangest and sternest problems; the will to life rejoicing in its own inexhaustibility through the sacrifice of its highest types – that is what I called Dionysian”
Nietzsche – Twilight of the Idols
Pain and pleasure are not antithetical opposites but exists in complementary bipolar relationship to each other. They are physical manifestations experienced by the body (as represented by the individual and society) and expressed psychologically and emotionally across a spectrum of states between anxiety and euphoria. They must be embraced and utilised in equal order to strengthen the body and spirit in order to create and maintain a balanced moral order which can nurture growth and compassion.
“Among the decisive preconditions for a Dionysian task is the hardness of the hammer, joy even in destruction. The imperative ‘become hard’, the deepest certainty that all creators are hard, is the actual mark of a Dionysian nature.”
Nietzsche – Ecce Homo p111
The energies of the psyche are the same energies which constitute and operate within the cosmos, they are not separate. Consciousness can then be seen as the product of a living universe reflecting back upon itself in order to realise the dimensions, complexity and potential of its own existence.
We must recognise, know and understand ourselves as a reflection of a Divine power, both Immanent (within us) and Transcendent (beyond comprehension), and finally to express ourselves in ways which reflect the awesome responsibility which Nature has placed upon us as it’s custodians. We must begin to recognise and adhere to the basic principles of unity, love and compassion, and to realise that we are all part of the underlying unity of all things. I believe that these conditions can be supported at every intellectual level including science, and that they form the basic ingredients for living an authentic, and ethically motivated life.
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